Critical minerals are elements, metals, or materials which are crucial for modern technology, but which have vulnerable or uncertain supply. Similar terms include ‘transition minerals’ and ‘strategic raw materials’ or ‘battery metals.’ These are not chemical or geological terms but political and economic constructs.

Mineral sands (including black sand minerals) contain elements considered critical, such as titanium, zirconium and rare earths. Mineral sand mines predominantly produce zirconium (from zircon) and titanium (from rutile and ilmenite) which are used in in a wide range of applications (see table below). Some mineral sand deposits can be a lucrative source of rare earth elements. The two largest producers of mineral sands in Australia are Tronox and Iluka.

Rare Earth Elements (REE) are like vitamins for technology. They are needed in very small quantities but without them most modern technologies would not function. They are also called rare earth metals or just rare earths. There are 17 rare earth elements on the periodic table. REE are actually not geologically rare, however they are found in such low concentrations that the environmental and economic costs in mining and processing means that they are rarely extracted, even as by-products from other mines. REEs are often found in minerals together and mined as mixed rare earths until they are refined, separated from each other, and turned into metal and metal products.

Lithium (Li), is a highly reactive alkali metal with strong electrochemical potential. That is why it is the key element in lithium-ion batteries used in electric vehicles and for battery storage of energy from renewables. Over the last 5 years there has been significant growth in the demand for lithium driven by the increase demand for electric vehicles and battery storage.